The following is an excerpt from the聽MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, ed. Joseph Gibaldi and Walter S. Achtert (New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1977), pp.聽122鈥�133.
45聽聽General Remarks
Common sense should guide the use of abbreviations in notes and bibliographies. Economy of space is important, but clarity more so.
46听听础产产谤别惫颈补迟颈辞苍蝉
In notes and bibliographies, use common abbreviations of聽dates听(Feb., 18th century), of聽institutions听(Acad., Assn., Coll., Dept., Inst., Soc., Univ.), of聽publications听(Bull., Diss., Jour., Mag.), and of [provinces,]聽states and countries听([Ont. or ON,] Fla. or FL, Eng.). 鈥� Abbreviations that end in a small letter are followed by a period. A person鈥檚 initials are always spaced. Abbreviations with more than two letters and those omitting periods are never spaced; practice with regard to two-letter abbreviations with periods varies.
H. N. Smith
Ph.D.
M.A.
L. C.
MLA
Washington, D.C.
A tendency in documentation is to omit periods in abbreviations consisting of initials of well-known periodicals (TLS听蹿辞谤听Times Literary Supplement), learned societies and professional organizations (AMA, ACLS), and books (DND, not聽DNB., although聽D.N.B.听辞谤听Dict. Nat. Biog.聽is equally correct;听OED, formerly known as聽N.E.D.;听DAB). It should be noted that some journals鈥攁mong others,听ELH听补苍诲听PMLA鈥攈ave initial letter abbreviations (without periods) as actual titles and also that most journals with single-word titles (Speculum) have no widely accepted abbreviations. Generally speaking, in citing periodicals, abbreviate only those titles likely to be familiar to the reader. Professional scholars in all disciplines tend to refer to journals and reference works within their discipline by acronyms:聽CBEL听蹿辞谤听Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature;听JEGP听蹿辞谤听Journal of English and Germanic Philology. (鈥�) Unless your intended audience is familiar with these acronyms, do not use them. Instead, abbreviate common words in order to save space.
47聽 聽Use of Italics in Abbreviations
As noted above (搂10h), accepted style has long been to [italicize] unquoted foreign words and phrases in an English text but not to [italicize] such words when familiarity and continued use have added them to the English stock. This convention has been widely applied to many common abbreviations of Latin words (A.D., p.m., P.S., cf., e.g., etc., i.e., viz., vs.) and by most instructors and scholarly writers to some of the abbreviations used in scholarship (et seq., q.v., s.v.).
48聽 聽List of Common Abbreviations and Reference Words
补肠补诲.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听补肠补诲别尘测
A.D.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽anno Domini 鈥榠n the year of the Lord,鈥� No space between; precedes numerals (A.D. 14). Cf. 鈥淏.C.鈥�
ALS听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽autograph letter signed
补苍辞苍.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听补苍辞苍测尘辞耻蝉
ante听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽鈥榖efore.鈥� But 鈥渂efore鈥� is preferred.
补辫辫.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听补辫辫别苍诲颈虫
art., arts.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽article(s)
补蝉蝉苍.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听补蝉蝉辞肠颈补迟颈辞苍
b.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 born (鈥�)
B.C.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽before Christ. No space between; follows numerals (19 B.C.). Cf. 鈥淎.D.鈥�
B.C.E.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽before Common Era. No space between.
bibliog..听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽bibliography, bibliographer, bibliographical
biog.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽biography, biographer, biographical
bk., bks.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽book(s)
B.M.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽British Museum, London (now British Library). No space between.
B.N.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Biblioth猫que Nationale. No space between.
产耻濒濒.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听产耻濒濒别迟颈苍
漏听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽copyright (漏聽1977)
c., ca.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听circa聽鈥榓bout.鈥� Used with approximate dates (c.聽1796)
C.E.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Common Era. No space between.
cf.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽聽confer聽鈥榗ompare.鈥� Never use 鈥渃f.鈥� when 鈥渟ee鈥� is intended. (鈥�)
ch., chs.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽chapter(s)
chor., chors.聽聽聽聽聽聽choreographed by, choreographer(s)
col., cols.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽column(s)
肠辞濒濒.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听肠辞濒濒别驳别
comp., comps.聽聽聽compiled by, compiler(s)
cond.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽conducted by, conductor
颁辞苍驳.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听颁辞苍驳谤别蝉蝉
Cong. Rec.听听听听听听听听Congressional Record
d.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽died (鈥�)
DA,听DAI听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽Dissertation Abstracts,听Dissertation Abstracts International
D.A.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Doctor of Arts. No space between.
DAB听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Dictionary of American English
dept.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽department
dir., dirs.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽directed by, director(s)
diss.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽dissertation
DNB听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Dictionary of National Biography
doc., docs.听听听听听听听听document(s)
E, Eng.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽English
ed., eds.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽edited by, editor(s), edition(s). Some prefer 鈥渆dn.鈥� for 鈥渆dition.鈥�
ed. cit.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽cit.editio citata聽鈥榚dition cited.鈥� Avoid using.
e.g.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽exempli gratia聽鈥榝or example.鈥� Rarely capitalized; no space between; set off by commas. (鈥�)
enl.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽enlarged (as in 鈥渞ev. and enl. ed.鈥�)
et al.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽et alii聽鈥榓nd others鈥�
et seq.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽et sequens,听sequential聽鈥榓nd the following.鈥� But see 鈥渇., ff.鈥�
etc.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽et cetera聽鈥榓nd so forth.鈥� Avoid using in text. (鈥�)
ex., exs.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽example(s)
f., ff.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽and the following (with a space after a numeral) pages(s) or line(s). But exact references are preferable: pp.聽53鈥�58 instead of pp.聽53聽ff.
facsim., facs.聽聽聽聽聽聽facsimile
fasc.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽fascicle
fig., figs.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽figure(s)
floruit聽鈥榝lourished, reached greatest development or influence.鈥� Used before dates of historical figures when birth and death dates are not known.
fn.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 footnote. 鈥渘.鈥� is preferred.
fol., fols.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽folio(s)
Fr.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽French
front.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽frontispiece
GPO听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Ger.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽German
Gk.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽Greek
H. Doc.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽[U.S.] House [of Representatives] Document
hist.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽history, historian, historical
HMSO听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽Her (His) Majesty鈥檚 Stationary Office
H.R.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽[U.S.] House of Representative. No space between.
H.聽Rept.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 [U.S.] House [of Representatives] Report
H.聽Res.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽[U.S.] House [of Representatives] Resolution
ibid.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽ibidem聽鈥榠n the same place,鈥� i.e., the single title cited in the note immediately preceding. Not to be introduced by 鈥渋n.鈥� May be followed by page number(s) preceded by 鈥減.鈥� or 鈥減p.鈥� Avoid using ibid. (鈥�)
i.e.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽id est聽鈥榯hat is.鈥� Rarely capitalized; no space between; set off by commas. (鈥�)
illus.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽illustrated (by), illustrator, illustration(s)
infra听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽鈥榖elow.鈥� But 鈥渂elow鈥� is preferred.
inst.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽institute, institution
introd.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听(author of) introduction, introduced by, introduction
ips听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽inches per second (used in reference to recording tapes)
It.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽Italian
jour.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽journal
l., ll.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽line(s)
lang., langs.听听听听听听听听language(s)
L, Lat.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽Latin
L. C.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽Library of Congress. Usually a space between.
loc. cit.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽loco citato聽鈥榠n the place (passage) cited,鈥� i.e., in the same passage referred to in a recent note. Never follow 鈥渓oc. cit.鈥� with a page number. (鈥�) Repeating the page is as easy for the writer and more convenient for the reader. Avoid using.
M.A.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Master of Arts. No space between.
mag.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽magazine
ME听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽Middle English
MHG听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听Middle High German
ms, mss听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽manuscript(s) (the many mss of Chaucer). Capitalize MS and follow it with a period when referring to a specific manuscript (Bodleian MS. Tanner 43).
M.S.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Master of Science. No space between.
n., nn.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听note(s) (p.聽56, n.聽3). Preferred to 鈥渇n.鈥�; occasionally written without a period and closed up to the page number: p.聽56n. (鈥�)
narr., narrs.听听听听听听听听narrated by, narrator(s)
N.B.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽nota bene聽鈥榯ake notice, mark well.鈥� No space between.
n.d.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽no date (in a book鈥檚 imprint). No space between. (鈥�)
N.E.D.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽New English Dictionary. No spaces between. Cf.聽OED.
no., nos.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽number(s). Cf. 鈥渘umb.鈥�
n.p.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽no place (of publication) (鈥�); no publisher. No space between.
n. pag.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽no pagination. Space between.
NS (or N.S.)聽聽聽聽聽New Series; New Style (calendar)
numb.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听numbered
OE听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽Old English
OED听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Oxford English Dictionary. Formerly the聽New English Dictionary听(N.E.D.)
OF, OFr.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽Old French
OHG听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Old High German
OIr.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽Old Irish
op.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 opus (work)
op. cit.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽opere citato聽鈥榠n the work cited.鈥� The most abused of scholarly abbreviations, it is properly used in citing a passage on a different page (cf. 鈥渓oc. cit.鈥�) of a work recently noted, but in such instances the author鈥檚 name alone may suffice or the name and a short title may be clearer. Avoid using.
OS (or O.S.)聽聽聽聽聽Old Series, Original Series; Old Style (calendar)
p., pp.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽page(s). Omit if volume number precedes. (鈥�)
par., pars.听听听听听听听听聽聽paragraph(s)
passim听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽鈥榯hroughout the work, here and there鈥� (as 鈥減p.聽78, 111, et passim鈥�)
Ph.D.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Doctor of Philosophy. No space between.
philol.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听philological
philos.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听philosophical
pl., pls.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽plate(s)
post听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽鈥榓fter.鈥� But 鈥渁fter鈥� is preferred.
pref.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽preface (鈥渂y鈥� understood in context)
proc.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽proceedings
prod. prods.聽聽聽聽聽聽produced by, producer(s)
Prov.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽Proven莽al
pseud.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽pseudonym
pt., pts.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽part(s)
pub., pubs.听听听听听听听听published by, publication(s)
q.v.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽quod vide聽鈥榳hich see.鈥� No space between.
r听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽recto聽鈥榬ight-hand page鈥� (as B4听谤); or, when describing a single sheet, the front. See 鈥�v鈥� and 搂32v.
reg.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽听谤egistered
rept., repts.听听听听听听听听reported by, report(s)
res.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽听谤esolution
resp.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽听谤espectively (pp. 56, 17, 89, 6, resp.)
rev.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽听谤evised (by), revision; review, reviewed (by). It is better to spell out 鈥渞eview鈥� if there is any possibility of ambiguity.
rpm听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽听谤evolutions per minute (used of recordings)
rpt.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽听谤eprinted (by), reprint
S.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽Senate
sc.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽scene (鈥�)
S. Doc.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 Senate Document
Sec., secs.听听听听听听听听聽聽section(s)
ser.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽series
sess.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽Session
sic听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽鈥榯hus, so.鈥� Between square brackets when used as an editorial interpolation (see 搂14e); otherwise within parentheses. Avoid using with an exclamation mark.
sig., sigs.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽signature(s)
soc.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽society
Sp.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽Spanish
S. Rept.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 Senate Report
S. Res.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽Senate Resolution
st., sts.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽聽聽stanza(s)
St., Sts.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽聽Saint(s) (鈥�)
sup.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽supra聽鈥榓bove.鈥� But 鈥渁bove鈥� is preferred.
supp., supps.聽聽聽聽聽supplement(s)
s.v.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽sub verbo听辞谤听voce聽鈥榰nder the word or heading.鈥� No space between.
TLS听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽typed letter signed
trans. (or tr.)聽聽聽聽聽聽translated by, translator, translation
univ.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽university
v听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听verso聽鈥榣eft-hand page鈥� (as B4v); or, when describing a single sheet, the back. See 鈥�r鈥� and 搂32v.
v.聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽 聽vide听鈥荣别别鈥�
v., vs.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听versus 鈥榓gainst.鈥� Cf. 鈥渧., vv.鈥�
v., vv.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听verse(s). Cf. 鈥渧., vs.鈥�
v.d.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽various dates. No space between. Avoid using.
viz.听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听听聽聽聽聽videlicet聽鈥榥amely.鈥� With or without a period; usage varies. Avoid using.
vol., vols.听听听听听听听听聽聽聽volume(s) (Vol. II of 3 vols.). Omit 鈥淰ol.鈥� and 鈥減.鈥� when both items are supplied. (鈥�)
鈥�
50聽 聽b.聽聽Common correction symbols and abbreviations.
Ab聽聽聽聽聽聽聽Faulty abbreviation
Adj聽聽聽聽聽聽Improper use of adjective
Adv聽聽聽聽聽Improper use of adverb
Agr聽聽聽聽聽聽Faulty agreement
Amb听听听听础尘产颈驳耻辞耻蝉
Awk聽聽聽聽聽Awkward expression or construction
Cap聽聽聽聽聽Faulty capitalization
D听听听听听听听听聽Faulty diction
Dgl聽聽聽聽聽聽Dangling construction
Frag听听听听贵谤补驳尘别苍迟
lc听听听听听听听听聽Use lower case
Num聽聽聽聽Error in use of numbers
||听听听听听听听听聽聽聽Lack of parallelism
P听听听听听听听听聽聽Faulty punctuation
Ref聽聽聽聽聽聽Unclear pronoun reference
Rep聽聽聽聽聽Unnecessary repetition
R-O听听听听听搁耻苍-辞苍
Sp听听听听听听听听Error in spelling
SS听听听听听听听听Faulty sentence structure
T听听听听听听听听聽聽Wrong tense of verb
Tr听听听听听听听听Transpose elements
V听听听听听听听听聽Wrong verb form
Wdy听听听听奥辞谤诲测