Abstract

Against this backdrop, the Center on Gender and Forced Displacement (CGFD) at the Asian Institute of Technology organized a seminar on October 24, 2023, to mark International Climate Action Day. The event, funded by International Development Research Center (IDRC) aimed to raise awareness about global warming,  environmental degradation, and its adverse effects while fostering a gender-sensitive approach to climate-induced displacements.

The event was attended by scholars, experts, and young thinkers, including students actively addressing environmental issues in South and Southeast Asia, with a particular focus on gender-related aspects.

In his welcoming address, AIT President Professor Kazuo Yamamoto emphasized AIT’s dedication to sustainable development and its commitment to addressing climate change and promoting gender equality. “We must urgently address climate-induced displacements from a gendered perspective, drawing inspiration from the gender-related mandates of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. We need to work together to find innovative solutions, and this seminar is a testament to our commitment,� he asserted.

Mr. Miika Tomi, Deputy Head of Mission at the Embassy of Finland in Thailand, expressed gratitude to all participants and stressed the importance of addressing interconnected issues of gender, environment, and displacement, particularly for the most vulnerable individuals. He urged collaboration to create a more equitable and sustainable future for all.

The event featured a keynote paper titled “En-gendering ‘Anthropocene’: Changing (Counter) Cartographies of (Im)mobilities and Displacements,� presented by Professor Sanjay Chaturvedi from the Department of International Relations, South Asian University, India, and Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences. The session was chaired by Professor Mokbul Morshed Ahmad, Head of the Department of Development and Sustainability (DDS) at AIT.

A panel discussion chaired by Professor Paula Banerjee, Director of CGFD at Gender and Development Studies (GDS), AIT, included discussions on “Gender in Climate-induced Migration: Vulnerabilities and Resilience� by Professor Amena Mohsin from the Department of International Relations, Dhaka University, Bangladesh, and “Conflict Upstages Gender and Climate Change in Displacement: The Case of Myanmar Displacement� by Dr. Nyi Nyi Kyaw, IDRC Research Chair on Forced Displacement in Southeast Asia at Chiang Mai University, Thailand. In addition, the panel also featured a presentation by Mr. Voravate Chonlasin, Executive Director of AIT Extension, on “Gender and Social Inclusion in Climate Smart Agriculture,� focusing on highland agriculture in Thailand.

In another session, Ms. Rebecca Napier-Moore from the International Labor Organization (ILO) discussed the intersection of gender, environment, and labour mobility in Southeast Asia.

A session dedicated to Young Scholar Presentations, moderated by Dr. Philippe Doneys from GDS, AIT, showcased the research contributions of Aastha Thebe, a Master’s Student, Pratik Paudel, a PhD Student, and Md. Bakebillah, another Master’s Student. The session also presented the top three video documentaries of Young Scholars addressing gender, environment and displacements in South and Southeast Asian regions: Muhammad Hammad, a Research Assistant ²¹²Ô»åÌýRahul Kasaudhan,  a Master’s student; Pratik Paudel, a PhD student and Ha Ngoc Huong Mai, another Master’s student.

Dr. Monira Ahsan, Postdoctoral Researcher of the Center on Gender and Forced Displacement (CGFD), AIT, in her remarks, invited the academia, UN agencies, government, and civil society to undertake a transdisciplinary lens to address the gendered impacts of climate-induced displacements.

Giving his closing remarks Professor Abdul Salam, Dean of the School of Environment, Resources, and Development (SERD), AIT, emphasized the significance of such discussions in addressing pressing global challenges of Gender, Environment, and Displacements.

Tougher times await Myanmar migrant workers in Southeast Asia. Two recent orders issued by Myanmar’s junta State Administration Council (SAC) in September will result in higher costs of moving, living and working abroad for migrant workers and a fall in their disposable income and savings.

The first is the order that Myanmar migrant workers who migrate from September 2023 with the assistance of employment agencies will have to  of their salaries every month. These remittances must be sent through the official channel recognised by the SAC at an exchange rate significantly lower than the market rate.

The World Bank  of remittances at US$1.9 billion in 2022, down from US$2 billion in 2021 (the year that followed the coup) and US$2.67 billion in 2020 (the year before the coup). Hundreds of millions of dollars or more are remitted informally and via unknown channels.

This forced remittance order by the SAC may not affect all Myanmar external migrant workers. It is practically impossible to force every one of about four million migrant workers to remit a quarter of their incomes through official channels.

The second order is the amendment of Union Tax Law 2023. It orders Myanmar nationals abroad , in the foreign currency they earn, starting from 1 October 2023. These taxes will be calculated at a flat rate of 2 per cent on their total incomes or at up to 25 per cent of their chargeable incomes (incomes after deducting tax exemptions and tax reliefs) — whichever is lower.

These forced taxes effectively amount to double taxation for Myanmar migrants who also pay income taxes where they work. This order will affect all Myanmar migrant workers, as every national abroad must show proof of tax payments or pay a lump-sum income tax when they renew their passports, which are only valid for five years. The same requirement has to be fulfilled by those who renew their passports .

The September orders will generate a substantial amount of foreign currency for the SAC. Though not explicitly stated, they have two targets. First, the military junta wants to discipline and punish external Myanmar migrants who are seen as major  of the .

Second, the SAC needs additional funds to support its war machine against the resistance. UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Tom Andrews, reported that the junta has  worth at least US$1 billion since the coup. Since 2021, the junta has become increasingly cash-strapped due to  and the  of goods and services produced by military-affiliated enterprises in Myanmar.

Prior to these two new orders, Myanmar migrant workers in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore were already subject to a growing set of securitised regulations issued by the SAC. These regulations included suspensions ²¹²Ô»åÌý and obtaining Myanmar passports and new migration documentation requirements introduced after the coup, such as the . As a result of these new regulations and an increase in corruption after the coup, brokerage services have thrived in both  and in ²¹²Ô»åÌý, resulting in  for Myanmar migrant workers.

The case of Myanmar migrant workers in Thailand is particularly important. °Õ³ó²¹¾±±ô²¹²Ô»åÌý at least 2 million Myanmar workers, not including several hundreds of thousands of workers who have entered and stayed irregularly. Only 350,000 of them are employed through the official Memorandum of Understanding between Myanmar and Thailand.

Faced with forced remittances and income taxes, many Myanmar workers, who might have otherwise regularised their status in Thailand and obtained documentation from Myanmar immigration and labour authorities, may choose the irregular, undocumented pathway. Aspiring migrants who are still in Myanmar and would also have chosen the official pathway might now consider irregular migration. The porous border between the two countries facilitates irregular migration.

Despite the unavoidable deduction from their incomes abroad, hundreds of thousands of people remain driven to emigrate from Myanmar. The situation at home seems increasingly grim, with no visible end to the unprecedented domestic political conflict and humanitarian crisis, as well as  on the country’s economic situation and labour market.

While there is some irregular migration from Myanmar to Malaysia, it is not as big as in Thailand, and there is no irregular migration from Myanmar to Singapore. Documented workers, such as those in Singapore, cannot simply opt for the undocumented pathway like their counterparts in Thailand and Malaysia. They have already faced or will face the SAC rules and regulations.

Brokerage services will further thrive because many Myanmar migrant workers will have to seek passport, embassy and consulate brokers, resulting in higher fees. A significant portion of incomes and savings of Myanmar migrant workers will be lost from forced remittances, income taxes and increasing brokerage fees.

We look forward to witnessing the positive impact of Dr. Nyi Nyi Kyaw’s insights and leadership within the International Advisory Board of the Academy in Exile.